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Bureau of Mines Information Circular/1983 




Evaluation of Alumina Extraction 
From Coal Waste: Composition 
and Availability 

By Roy T. Sorensen and John L. Schaller 




UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 



^ , ,:jcj jjJi, , &Mjuu«<fJ^) 




Information Circular 8940 

\ A 



Evaluation of Alumina Extraction 
From Coal Waste: Composition 
and Availability 

By Roy T. Sorensen and John L. Schaller 




UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
James G. Watt, Secretary 

BUREAU OF MINES 
Robert C. Horton, Director 



This publication has been cataloged as follows: 



^^ 



i 



a „>° 



Sorensen, Roy 


T 












Evaluation of 


alumina extraction from coal 


waste: 


composition and 


availability. 














(Information circu 


lar / Bureau 


of Mines ; 8940) 




Bibliography: 


P- 


13-19. 










Supt. of Docs 


. no 


: I 28.27:8940. 








1. Aluminum 


oxic 


e. 2. Coal 


mine waste. 


I. Scha 


Her, John L. II. 


Title. III. Series: 


Information 


circul 


ar (United States. Bureau of 


Mines) ; 8940. 














TN295.U4 [QD181.A4] 


622s 


[669 


'.722] 


83-600121 



CONTENTS 

Pa g e 

Abstract 1 

Introduction 2 

Catalog of pertinent literature 4 

Bibliographies 4 

Characterization of coal wastes and ashes 4 

Location and production of coal wastes and ashes 5 

Categorization of coal wastes 5 

Review of coal waste descriptive literature 9 

Eastern Pennsylvania anthracite 9 

East and central bituminous, low calcium 9 

East and central bituminous, high calcium 10 

West and south central lignite, low calcium 11 

West and south central lignite, high calcium 11 

West and south central lignite, high calcium and high magnesium 12 

Summary and conclusions 12 

References 13 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

1. Grain size distribution curves for bottom ash and fly ash 3 

2. Production and accumulation of U.S. coal waste by category 7 

TABLES 

1. Comparison of typical distribution between coarse ash and fly ash by type 

of boiler and method of firing 2 

2. Approximate amounts of accumulated anthracite coal wastes 2 

3. Composition of fly ash and fractions obtained by magnetic separation 3 

4. Examples of chemical compositions or ranges of composition of fly ashes, 

bottom ashes, and coal mining and processing wastes, by category 8 



OO 








UNIT OF MEASURE 


ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS REPORT 


Btu 


British thermal 


unit pet 


percent 


Btu/lb 


British thermal 


unit per pound ym 


micrometer 


° C 


degree Celsius 


tpy 


ton per year 


lb 


pound 


yd 3 


cubic yard 



EVALUATION OF ALUMINA EXTRACTION FROM COAL 
WASTE: COMPOSITION AND AVAILABILITY 

By Roy T. Sorensen and John L, Schaller 



ABSTRACT 

This Bureau of Mines report presents the results of a study to rank 
technologies for extraction of alumina from bottom ash and coal shale. 
The available literature on composition and availability of coal 
waste was reviewed, and papers pertinent to alumina extraction are 
referenced. 

Types of coal waste were categorized by method of waste generation, 
coal content (heating value), location, coal type (ash nomenclature), 
and alkaline earth content. The differences and similarities among the 
categories of coal waste are summarized as to factors that may affect 
aluminum extraction, especially factors concerning chemical composi- 
tion, current production, storage problems, and accumulated tonnage. 
Data available on physical characteristics and mineralogy did not cor- 
relate well with the individual categories of coal waste, and discus- 
sion on these two aspects is limited to the differences between coal 
ash and coal shale. 



Metallurgist. 
2 Chemist. 
Both authors are with the Boulder City Engineering Laboratory, Bureau of Mines, 
Boulder City, NV. 



INTRODUCTION 



About 80 million tons of coal shale, as 
coal treatment plant or mine waste, is 
being produced annually in the United 
States and about 3 billion tons has accu- 
mulated (15) .3 Total ash production is 
about 70 million tons annually, and about 
500 million tons has been accumulated. 
About 20 pet of the coal ash is bottom 
ash or boiler slag. 

Ash makes up from 3 to 30 pet of the 
coal. Fly ash is the predominant form of 
ash produced in the United States and 
ranges from 10 to 90 pet of the ash. The 
remainder is a coarser fraction, called 
boiler slag when it is slagged in the 
burners and dropped into water filled 
hoppers. When the coarse ash falls 
through burner grates and is collected 
dry, it is called bottom ash. The rela- 
tive distribution between coarse ash and 
fly ash for different types of firing is 
shown in table 1 (35) . The distribution 
of the various types of accumulated an- 
thracite wastes are shown in table 2. 
The size differences between bottom ash 
and fly ash are illustrated in figure 1 
(69) . The fly ash particles range from 
0.5 to 100 ym. Glass comprises 50 to 90 
pet of the ash weight. Other components 
are spinels including magnetite, hema- 
tite, carbon ranging from elemental car- 
bon to unburned coal, mullite, and 
quartz. Alumina is contained in both the 
mullite and the glass fraction. Other 
alumina-containing minerals include meta- 
kaolin, muscovite, and spinel type espe- 
cially when the coal combustion is car- 
ried out at lower temperatures. Metals 
are leachable to some extent from fly 
ash, but less from bottom ash. Thus, fly 
ash is of enviromental concern. However, 
high-carbon-content ashes are not consid- 
ered a combustion hazard. Bottom ash is 
usually denser and, according to Profes- 
sor J. Leonard, University of Kentucky, 
can contain more iron. 

■^Underlined numbers in parentheses re- 
fer to items in the list of references at 
the end of this report. 



TABLE 1. - Comparison of typical distri- 
bution between coarse ash and fly ash 
by type of boiler and method of fir- 
ing, percent ( 35 ) 

Boiler and/or type of firin g [ Coarse | Fly" 
Wet bottom: Front, opposed, 

and tangential firing 1 

Dry bottom: Front, opposed, 

and tangential firing 1 

Cyclone 

Spreader stoker 

1 Pulverized coal. 

2 0ther data indicate lower figure. TVA 
Paradise plant produces 65 pet coarse ash 
(75). 

NOTE. — Wet bottom ash is called boiler 
slag. 

TABLE 2. - Approximate amounts of 
accumulated anthracite coal wastes 




Waste type 


10 6 
yd 3 


Portion of 
total, pet 1 




390 
220 
140 
100 
23 
2 


45 




25 


Breaker refuse and 


silt 


16 
11 


Silt 


3 






<1 




875 


100 



1 Rounded. 

Much of the coal ash can be benefici- 
ated by magnetic separation. Typical wet 
and dry low-intensity magnetic separation 
results (18) are shown in table 3. Lib- 
eration of other minerals has been noted 
also in studies on benef iciation or frac- 
tionation of coal ash (_3, 8-9_, 37-39, 44- 
45, 47, 49, 66-67, 78, 80, 86, 98). 

Coal shale includes wastes, such as 
breaker waste, silt, tunnel rock, and 
mine waste, obtained in mining and pro- 
cessing coal. The major alumina- 
containing minerals are illite, montmo- 
rillonite, and kaolinite. Coal shale 
comes in a variety of sizes and has great 
differences in coal content or heating 



100 


U S STANDARD SIEVf OWNING IN INCHES U S STANOARO SIEVE NUMMRS HYOROMfTlR 
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GRAIN SIZE MILLIMETERS 




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FIGURE 1. - Gram size distribution curves for bottom ash and fly ash (69). 

TABLE 3. - Composition of fly ash and fractions obtained by magnetic 
separation (18) 





Whole 
fly ash, 
100 parts 


Chemical composition, pet 


Constituent 


Dry separation 


Wet separation 




Magnetic, 
23.6 parts 


Nonmagnetic, 
76.4 parts 


Magnetic, 
26.1 parts 


Nonmagnetic, 
68.4 parts 


Si0 2 

A1 2 3 

'FejC^ 

CaO 

MgO 

Na 2 


42.36 

17.91 

19.29 

4.49 

.72 

.35 

1.72 

2.13 

.58 

10.39 


20.31 

10.21 

60.08 

1.87 

.40 

.18 

.81 

.79 

.13 

10.39 


47.89 

20.04 

6.56 

4.88 

.76 

.35 

1.85 

2.04 

.45 

12.40 


20.83 

9.95 

65.00 

1.32 

.42 

.14 

.71 

ND 

.12 

1.70 


53.0 

22.83 

5.24 

5.82 

.99 

.31 


K 2 

S0 3 

LOI 


1.91 

ND 

.56 

8.46 



LOD Loss on drying at 110° C. 

LOI Loss on ignition from 110° to 800° C. 



ND Not detected. 

'Total iron reported as Fe 2 03 



value. More mine and process wastes are 
generated from underground mining than 
from surface mining. Underground wastes 
have higher heating values and, when ac- 
cumulated, combustion is a greater haz- 
ard. The danger of combustion is an 
overriding incentive for some type of 
treatment of high-coal-content coal 
shale. 

Since many alumina extraction processes 
require preliminary calcination, there is 



an added incentive for use of high heat- 
ing value process plant or mine wastes. 
Process plant and mine wastes also can be 
contaminated with varying amounts of cal- 
careous or siliceous bedding rocks and 
pyrite and are not the same composition 
as the ash produced from the mined coal. 
However, the alumina, alkali, and alka- 
line earth content of process and mine 
wastes can generally be predicted from 
the ash analyses, i.e., if it is high in 
one it is high in the other and vice 



versa. Pyrite and other sulfides produce 
acid solutions in accumulated wastes 
and can result in more serious metal 
pollution than that occurring from 
coal ash. 

In order to evaluate technologies for 
extracting alumina from U.S. coal waste, 



available data on mineralogical composi- 
tion, chemical composition, and physical 
properties of the wastes should be ana- 
lyzed as thoroughly as possible because 
the characteristics of the individual 
coal waste influence the type of alumina 
extraction process that can be used and 
the overall process economics. 



CATALOG OF PERTINENT LITERATURE 



BIBLIOGRAPHIES 

Bibliographies that include references 
to coal composition, bedding materials, 
coal mine and process plant wastes, and 
coal ashes are available C2, 19-22, 24 , 
97 ) . Annotated bibliographies include 
Condry (21), "Recovery of Alumina From 
Coal Refuse," on alumina recovery methods 
and Akers (_2) , "Coal Minerals Bibliogra- 
phy," on minerals associated with coal. 
For coal ash production and utilization, 
an excellent annotated bibliography is 
included in Cockrell ( 20 ) , "New or Unde- 
veloped Methods of Producing and Utiliz- 
ing Coal Ash." The work covers the peri- 
od before 1968. Coalgate (19) , "Litera- 
ture Survey — Coal Associated Wastes," 
covers the period 1900 to 1972. Deur- 
brouk (22), "Bureau of Mines Publications 
on Coal Preparation (1910-60)," and ref- 
erence 97, "U.S. Government Publications 
on Coal Preparation 1960-1981," include 
most government publications on coal 
preparation and benef iciation. 

Eisele ( 24 ) , "Evaluation of Technology 
for Recovery of Metallurgical-Grade Alu- 
mina From Coal Ash," lists a number of 
of recent publications on alumina recov- 
ery techniques. 

CHARACTERIZATION OF COAL WASTES 
AND ASHES 

Chemical composition and physical char- 
acteristics of coal wastes (25-34, 54 ) 
and ashes are covered in a number of 
studies (l_-2, 6-7_, 9-11, J2~JJL» 11> M~ 
_45, 48, 55, 58, 68, 79. > 12-91_, 95). The 
most comprehensive listing of chem- 
ical compositions of coal ashes are in 



Abernathy (1_) , "Major Ash Constituents in 
U.S. Coals," and for coal waste materials 
in Buttermore (16) , "Characterization of 
Coal Refuse." 

Excellent chemical data for lignite are 
in five papers by Manz (61-65) and in two 
papers by Sondreal (84-85) . Reference 
85, "Characteristics and Variabilities of 
Lignite Ash From the Northern Great 
Plains," is especially valuable. 

For anthracite waste materials, 
MacCartney (55), "Pennsylvania Anthracite 
Refuse," is a good source. Rose (75) , 
"Composition and Property of Kentucky Fly 
Ashes," gives excellent data for east 
Kentucky (Appalachian bituminous) and 
west Kentucky (east central bituminous) 
coal ashes. 

Chemical analyses of coal silt and gob 
refuse are given by Buttermore ( 16 ) for 
several regions. Backer (]_) , "Properties 
of Western Coal Waste Materials," gives 
analyses for Utah and other western 
coals. Busch (15) , "Physical Property 
Data on Fine Coal Refuse," gives analyses 
for Appalachian coals. Wewerka ( 99 ) 
gives analyses for fine waste materials 
from Illinois Basin cleaning plants. A 
recent compilation by Torry (94) covers 
trace contaminants in coal. 

No comprehensive compilation of the 
physical properties of coal process plant 
and mine wastes was found. There are 
many important regional papers and 
some papers limited to specific types 
of waste. Buttermore ( 16 ) gives data 
for Appalachian bituminous, Interior 



Province 4 bituminous and Rocky Mountain 
Province coals, MacCartney (55) gives 
data for the Pennsylvania anthracite re- 
gion, Backer (7) covers western coals, 
while Busch ( 14-15) gives physical prop- 
erty data for coarse and fine wastes from 
the Eastern region. Bradley (13) , "Char- 
acterization of Solid Constituents in 
Blackwater Effluents From Coal Prepara- 
tion Plants," gives data on washer wastes 
from the Appalachian region. Majdidzedeh 
(59) , in a report on a laboratory inves- 
tigation, discusses material characteris- 
tics of powerplant bottom ashes and de- 
scribes their performance in bituminous 
mixtures for road paving. Moulten ( 69 ) 
covers bottom ash and boiler slag charac- 
terization of bottom ash. Numerous au- 
thors give data on fly ash, but the 
papers that provide considerable informa- 
tion include Rose (75) , Hulet (44) , 
Fowler (36), Hurst (45). and Ray (72). 
Manz (6_0 gives data for lignite fly ash. 

Chemical composition and physical char- 
acterization are discussed in several pa- 
pers on the benef iciation of wastes: 
Styron (90^), "Quality Control and Benef i- 
ciation of Fly Ash," Stirling (^) , "Ben- 
ef iciation of Fly Ash," and Aldrich (3). 
Rosner ( 76-77) gives chemical and physi- 
cal data for several western utility 
plant ashes. Additional physical and 
chemical data on the extraction of alumi- 
na from coal ashes are discussed by Hsieh 
(43), Chou 08), and Ripley (73-74). 

LOCATION AND PRODUCTION OF COAL 
WASTES AND ASHES 

Data on location and production of coal 
wastes and ashes are given in (6-7, 10- 
12, 17, 29-34, 55-65, 70-71, 8 C 84-88, 



91 , 93 , 95 , 97). Detailed data on the 
cost of coal refuse disposal are given in 
Bureau of Mines IC 8576 (95). The best 
source on production and utilization of 
coal from which waste production data may 
be inferred is the 1981 "Keystone Coal 
Industries Manual" (56) . Data on coal 
resources, production, consumption, and 
end-use forecasts are updated annually. 
Nameplate data in the Department of Ener- 
gy (96) inventory of powerplants , which 
lists powerplants in the United States 
with output rating and type of fuel used, 
are updated annually. Tolle (92) gives 
ash production by region and State for 
1980, based on preliminary data of the 
National Ash Association. 

Many papers have been published in the 
proceedings of the six fly ash symposia 
(30-34, 42). Important papers on north- 
ern Great Plains coals and wastes are 
published in the proceedings of the sym- 
posia on the technology and use of lig- 
nite (25-27, 40 , 50-52). Overviews by 
Brackett (10-12) and Faber (28-29) are of 
interest. The papers of Manz (61-65) and 
Sondreal (84-85) cover the northern Great 
Plains lignite area. 

Locations and size of burning and burnt 
waste banks are given by Stahl (87) and 
McNay (_5_7 ) . MacCartney (55) is the best 
source for the Pennsylvania anthracite 
region. 

Many books on coal preparation and pro- 
duction have been published. Recent 
works of value include Leonard (53) , 
"Coal Preparation," Schmidt (79) , Coal in 
America," and Torrey (93) , "Coal Ash 
Utilization. " 



CATEGORIZATION OF COAL WASTES 



There are many different types of coal 
wastes that are being or have been 

4 Province nomenclature common to the 
U.S. coal industry is given by T. R. 
Scallon in "An Assessment of Coal Re- 
sources," Chem. Eng. Prog., v. 73, No. 6, 
June 1977, pp. 25-30. 



produced in the United States. In order 
to evaluate processes for the extraction 
of alumina from coal wastes, the types of 
wastes must be classified. Two cross In- 
dexes developed to define the type of 
coal waste are as follows: 



I. Method of waste generation and 
coal content usable as fuel. 

1. Process plant waste, high heating 
value (>4,000 Btu/lb) . 

2. Process plant waste, low heating 
value (<4,000 Btu/lb). 

3. Process plant waste, no heating 
value . 



e. West and south central lignite, 
high calcium (>4 pet). (Predominant ma- 
terial in Rocky Mountians, Pacific Coast 
and Gulf lignite provinces.) 

f. West and south central lignite, 
high calcium and magnesium (>4 pet). 
(Includes subbituminous coals of the Pow- 
der River basin of Montana and Wyoming 
and lignites of the Fort Union Formation 
of the northern Great Plains.) 



4. Mine rock and trommel waste, no 
heating value. 

5. Burned refuse, no heating value. 

6. Process ash, no heating value. 
(From coal processes, such as synthetic 
production or fluosolids burning. Pro- 
cess temperatures are usually low.) 

7. Low temperature utility ash, no 
heating value. (Coal product burned at 
about 1,000° C.) 

8. High temperature utility ash, no 
heating value. (Coal product burned at 
about 1,500° C. Category includes fly 
ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag.) 

II. Location, 5 type of coal,^ and al- 
kaline earth content. 

a. Eastern Pennsylvania anthracite. 

b. East and central bituminous, low 
calcium (<4 pet). 

c. East and central bituminous, high 
calcium (>4 pet). 



By combining these two sets of indexes , 
48 categories of coal waste result, which 
can be denoted la, lb, etc. Figure 2 in- 
dicates which of the categories provide 
major percentages of current coal waste 
production or existing coal waste accumu- 
lations. Examples of chemical composi- 
tions or ranges of chemical compositions 
for different fly ashes of categories 8b, 
7c, 8c, 8d, and 8e; for different bottom 
ashes of categories 6a, 8b, 7c, 8c, and 
8e; and for different types of coal min- 
ing and process wastes (coal shale) of 
categories la, 2a, lb, 2b, 3b, 2c, le , 
2e, and If, are presented in table 4. 

Many of these 48 categories shown in 
figure 2 can be grouped together accord- 
ing to their utilization for alumina ex- 
traction. The members of any group are 
compatible as feed to an alumina extrac- 
tion plant. These groups are 

la, lb - Combined because of similar 
composition. Because of proximity to 
population centers in eastern Pennsylva- 
nia untreated la material presents great- 
er health and enviromental hazards than 
it would in other areas. 



d. West and south central lignite, 
low calcium (<4 pet). (Mainly in Rocky 
Mountain region.) 

5 West and south central refers to coals 
from the northern Great Plains, Pacific 
Coast and Gulf Provinces. 

"Western bituminous and subbituminous 
coals are classified in this report as 
lignites because their ash is most accu- 
rately described as lignite type ash. 



Id, le, If - Combined because there is 
much less of Id and If. These materials 
are mainly from underground mines in Utah 
and Colorado, and any process should han- 
dle all types. 

2a, 2b - See la, lb group. 

2d, 2e - Combined because there is much 
less 2d, which would be combined with 
2e for large-scale exploitation. Any 



Process plant waste 

High heating value (11 

Low heating value (2) 

No heating value (3) 

Mine rock 

and trommel waste [4) 

Burned refuse (5) 
Process ash (6) 



Utility ash 



Low temperature (7) 



High temperature (8) 



Eastern 
Pennsylvania 

anthracite 


Eatt and central bituminous 


West and south central lignite 


All (a] 


Low Ca (b) 


High Ca (c) 


Low Ca (d) 


High Ca (el 


High Mg. Ca (f) 


M, *> 


M.^ 


M. * 


«^^*» 


M.^\ 




M.^ 


M.^ 


M. A 


.K. * 


m.* 




M. * 


M. A 


M. * 


M. * 


M. A 




J*. A 


J*. ^ 


M. A 


M. A 


M. A 




M. ^ 


M. 


M. * 


M. A 


Very little 






Only 4 small pla 


its in production 






M. * 


M. * 


J*. A 


M. * 


M. * 


M. A 


M. * 


n.^ 


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.R^ 





KEY 




Production 


Accumulated waste 


Major 


M. 


* 


Minor 


M. 


A 


Little or none 


(blank) 


(blank) 



Category cross indexes (a), (b). (1), (2). etc. 

FIGURE 2. - Production and accumulation of U.S. coal waste by category. 



composite of 2d and 2e would be classi- 
fied as a high-calcium category. 

3a, 3b, 4a, 4b - Combined because of 
similar composition except for size 
difference. 

3c, 4c - See 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b group. 

3d, 3e , 4d , 4e - Combined because of 
similar composition except for calcium 
content and size differences , and because 
high- and low-calcium materials are 
closely associated and could be combined 
and yield a high-calcium composite. 



3f, 4f - See 3a, 3b, 4a, 4b group. 

5a, 5b - Combined because of similar 
composition. 

5d , 5e , 5f - Eliminated because there 
is insignificant tonnage, widely scat- 
tered, and inaccessible. 

6a, 6b, 6d , 6f - Combined because ton- 
nage otherwise is insignificant. 

7a, 7b - See 5a, 5b group. 

8a, 8b - See 5a, 5b group. 



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REVIEW OF COAL WASTE DESCRIPTIVE LITERATURE 



EASTERN PENNSYLVANIA ANTHRACITE 

General 

Anthracite is coal containing more than 
92 pet fixed carbon (56) and is limited 
to four fields of eastern Pennsylvania. 
Originally, anthracite waste was sepa- 
rated into breaker refuse, silt, mine 
refuse, tunnel rock, and mixtures of 
these materials. Banks accumulated be- 
fore 1900 have yielded up to 75 pet coal, 
but coal content of subsequent production 
banks decreased until, at present, coarse 
process waste, breaker refuse, mine ref- 
use, and tunnel rock, seldom contain more 
than 5 pet commercially salable coal 
(55) . Silt produced can contain enough 
coal to be considered high heating value. 
The carbon-free ash has the following ap- 
proximate analyses 7 (86) in percent: 
Si0 2 , 50-75; Al 2 3 , 30^37 ; Fe 2 3 , 3-10; 
Ti0 2 , 1-2; CaO, 1-2; MgO, 0-1; K 2 and 
Na 2 0, 1-3; and S0 3 , 0-1. 

Heating values were determined for six 
waste banks sampled and used in a feasi- 
bility study on production of steam and 
alumina (4). The samples have heating 
values between 1,000 and 5,000 Btu/lb and 
can be burned in f luidized-bed combus- 
tors. About 4,000 Btu/lb is the heating 
value of waste used in an Alcoa study on 
alumina extraction (43) . At present, 
some of the silt material is being pro- 
cessed to decrease ash, shipped to Korea, 
briquetted, and used as a 30-pct ash fuel 
(56). 

Anthracite process wastes are situated 
closer to highly populated areas than 
other coal wastes and are often unstable. 
They are very inflammable owing to their 
high coal content, especially the finer 
sized material, and contain appreciable 
quantities of leachable objectionable 
compounds, mostly sulfides. In the past, 

Metal analyses throughout the report 
are given for an oxide form. This is 
consistent with industrial usage and does 
not necessarily indicate the actual chem- 
ical form. 



accummulated anthracite wastes have pro- 
duced the most serious enviromental prob- 
lems of any type of coal waste and repre- 
sent the greatest ongoing hazard (55 , 57 , 
87). 

Production 

The amount of waste presently produced 
by process plants is very small compared 
with past production. Present anthracite 
coal production, including waste banks 
for fuel, is less than 5 million tpy, 
compared with 100 million tpy in 1917 
(56, 86). Only 600,000 tpy of present 
anthracite production is from underground 
mines. Of 250,000 tons of new waste pro- 
duction per year, 15,000 tpy is the silt 
type that has high heating value. Cur- 
rent production of anthracite ash is sev- 
eral hundred thousand tons per year. 

Storage 

Anthracite waste has been accumulated 
(55) in about 800 banks covering 12,000 
acres and totals about 900 million yd- 5 . 
Much of this material has burned or is 
burning. Breaker refuse is the major 
component , much of which is in banks 
mixed with tunnel rock, mine refuse, and 
silt. Approximate amounts of these an- 
thracite waste products are shown in 
table 2. 

EAST AND CENTRAL BITUMINOUS, 
LOW CALCIUM 

General 

This material, which has a relatively 
high alumina and low alkali and alkaline 
earth content (<4 pet CaO), constitutes 
the principal coal waste produced in the 
Eastern United States and the central 
United States. Coal between anthracite 
and lignite is referred to as bituminous. 
It is estimated that 25 pet of the coal 

from underground mines is process plant 
waste and 10 pet of that is fines or silt 
(7_, _ll t 13, 63). The silt contains about 
4,000 Btu7lb~Tl4-15) but the coarse mate- 
rial is usually significantly less. 



10 



Alumina in the ash analysis of the coal 
is between 20 and 30 pet and the waste 
products are expected to contain slightly 
less (1). Waste banks are easily inflam- 
mable but are not located as close to ur- 
ban centers as are anthracite waste banks 
(55, 57-58, 87). As with the anthracite, 
many of the waste dumps are serious 
health and pollution hazards owing to 
leaching of objectionable compounds, and 
must be made innocuous. Other banks 
forming ponds are sometimes unstable and 
can fail, causing flooding. Disposal 
costs (1973) for coal waste dump reclama- 
tion ranged from $1,800 to $15,000 per 
acre in Pennsylvania (88) . These costs 
could be credited partially or wholly to 
any process utilizing the waste. As far 
as alumina extraction is concerned, these 
wastes (eastern and central bituminous) 
can be regarded as nearly identical to 
their counterparts from eastern Pennsyl- 
vania anthracite. Alumina content in the 
anthracite waste averages several percent 
higher than in the bituminous waste. 

The Hat Creek coal of British Columbia 
has an ash similar to east and central 
bituminous. The Hat Creek coal ash has 
been extensively tested for alumina ex- 
traction (73-74) . 

Production 

Production data, mainly from under- 
ground mines in the Appalachian area 
(56) , indicate that more than 60 million 
tons of coarse and 6 million tons of fine 
refuse are produced annually. A large, 
but indeterminant , number of burnt banks 
exist. In 1964, 422 of 495 burning spoil 
banks in the United States were in the 
Appalachain bituminous area (87). The 
number of burning banks has decreased be- 
cause some bank fires have been extin- 
guished and disposal methods have im- 
proved; 300 banks were burning in 1978 
(99) . 

An estimated 25 million tons of utility 
ash is produced annually, mostly high 
temperature ash from pulverized coal. 
This figure is derived from coal consump- 
tion figures in the 1981 Keystone Coal 



Industries Manual (56) . Many older 
plants in the region have stoker-type 
burners. Since these plants are rela- 
tively small , the amount of ash produced 
is not significant, and since much of 
this ash is used in the building trade, 
it can not be considered an important 
source of alumina. Coarse ash or slag is 
usually used in building materials. Some 
cyclone-fired plants produce a signifi- 
cant amount of high-temperature boiler 
slag. 

Storage 

Although not well documented, a very 
large amount of process plant waste and 
burned waste exists in the eastern and 
central bituminous area. The amount un- 
doubtedly is many times greater than the 
1 billion tons mentioned for anthracite 
waste. 

The large ash production would indicate 
that a considerable quantity has accumu- 
lated. A high percentage of the ash is 
being utilized. 

EAST AND CENTRAL BITUMINOUS, 
HIGH CALCIUM 

General 

Except for the high calcium content (>4 
pet calcium) this material is similar to 
the low-calcium east and central bitumi- 
nous waste (1_) . The high-calcium bitumi- 
nous coals occur in the eastern interior 
region, the western interior region, and 
in scattered occurrences in the Appalach- 
ian regions. Coal with high-calcium ash 
has been found in five seams in Virginia 
(1_) and in some West Virginia deposits 
( 16) . The material has higher iron and 
alumina contents than the lignite-type 
coal ash (1) . In general, the percentage 
of Fe 2 03 exceeds the sum of the percent- 
age of CaO and MgO. Bituminous coal ash 
in which the percentage of CaO and MgO 
exceed the percentage of Fe 2 03 is termed 
lignite-type ash. This type of material 
occurs in the west and south central 
areas of the United States. 



11 



Production 

A smaller fraction of the high-calcium 
bituminous material is mined underground 
than low-calcium bituminous material and, 
therefore, proportionally less of the 
higher-heating-value process plant waste 
is produced from this material than from 
low-calcium bituminous. 



lignite is strip mined and used as "run- 
of-mine" product, the amount of process 
plant and mine waste is nonexistent and 
would contain little or no heating value. 
The Four Corners Power Plant in New Mex- 
ico produces more than 1 million tons of 
utility ash per year. 

Storage 



No reliable data were found to differ- 
entiate between production of high- and 
low-calcium process plant wastes from bi- 
tuminous coals or production of high-and 
low-calcium utility ash from bituminous 
coals. Two Kentucky utility plants pro- 
duce about 400,000 tons of fly ash, 
70,000 tons of bottom ash, and 50,000 
tons of boiler slag per year. Average 
ash contents of the coal burned in the 
plants are 10 and 4.5 pet (75) . 

Storage 

Available information on accumulations 
of bituminous wastes does not distinguish 
between high and low calcium, except that 
there is far more low-calcium material. 
Since coal wastes fires occur, a signif- 
icant fraction of burnt refuse exists. 

WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL LIGNITE, 
LOW CALCIUM 

General 

Consolidated coal having less than 
8,300 Btu/lb heating value is commonly 
referred to as lignite. Lignite-type ash 
is ash in which the sum of the percentage 
of CaO and MgO exceeds the percentage of 
Fe 2 03 (84) . Only rarely does the ash 
from lignite or bituminous coals of the 
west and south central area fail to meet 
this "lignite-type" specification. Less 
of the low-calcium lignite ash has been 
produced than either the high-calcium or 
high-calcium, high-magnesium ash. 

Production 

A significant tonnage of coal that has 
lignite-type ash of low calcium and mag- 
nesium content is being . mined in the 
Rocky Mountain region (1). Since the 



Little information is available on ac- 
cumulations of this material. Process 
plant wastes and mine wastes would be 
small and widely scattered. 

WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL LIGNITE, 
HIGH CALCIUM 

General 

This type of material predominates in 
the Rocky Mountains, the Pacific Coast 
and the Gulf lignite provinces ( 1_, 56 ) , 
but not in the Great Plains area. Al- 
though little analytical data on Texas 
coal were found, the material is being 
mined from the Wilcox Formation and has 
high calcium and low magnesium (available 
analyses provided by D. Taylor of Texas 
Utilities Co., and reference 62). Ash 
from the high-calcium lignite has alumina 
contents that range from 10 to 25 pet. 
Iron content can vary from 5 to 14 pet 
and Si0 2 from 20 to 50 pet. 

Most ash is produced by utilities using 
pulverized coal in their burners. The 
lignites contain about 20 pet bottom ash. 
The lignite fly ashes are coarser than 
those from bituminous or anthracite 
coals. Some utility ash from Alberta, 
Canada, coals have high-calcium, low- 
magnesium type ash (74). 

Production 

Large quantities of coal with high- 
calcium, lignite-type ash are being mined 
and greater production is anticipated 
(23) . There are underground mines and 
standard coal cleaning plants only in 
Colorado and Utah (_7_) . The amount of 
process plant and mine waste produced is 
small and scattered, especially when 
compared with bituminous coal waste. 



12 



Utility ash from high-calcium lignites is 
produced in very large tonnages because 
most of the lignite used by utilities is 
burned in very large, pulverized coal 
fired plants in the West and Southwest. 
Lignite powerplants are larger than those 
using bituminous or anthracite coal. 

Storage 

Process plant wastes are widely scat- 
tered and do not provide the environmen- 
tal problems associated with eastern 
banks. Some of the waste banks have 
burned. Eighteen were burning in 1964 
and 20 in 1971 ( 57 , 87). Large quanti- 
ties of ash are being stored and the 
amounts are increasing (7, 56). 



stoker spreaders are in operation. Cy- 
clone furnace production of bottom ash 
has been reported at both 65 and 90 pet , 
spreader stokers at 35 pet, and pulver- 
ized coal burners at 15 pet (table 1). 

For the purposes of this study, the 
subbituminous coals of the Powder River 
basin of Montana and Wyoming are classi- 
fied with the high-calcium, high- 
magnesium lignites. 

The coals of Saskatchewan are an exten- 
sion of the Fort Union Formation of the 
northern Great Plains province and have 
high-magnesium, high-calcium ash ( 100 ) . 

Production 



WEST AND SOUTH CENTRAL LIGNITE, 
HIGH CALCIUM AND HIGH MAGNESIUM 

General 

Lignite coals with high magnesium con- 
tent occur in the northern Great Plains 
and comprise 25 pet of the U.S. coal re- 
serves (85) . Great variations are found 
in the ash analyses of the coals even 
within a single mine. Alumina content is 
low and ranges from 10 to 25 pet. Al- 
though most ash production is from pul- 
verized coal fired plants, some plants 
are using cyclone furnaces and some 



Because little or none of the type of 
material is mined underground, mine 
waste, process plant waste, and burned 
refuse are nonexistent. Utility ash pro- 
duction is very large but less than that 
for the high-calcium, low-magnesium lig- 
nite. Large quantities are produced from 
pulverized coal and cyclone furnace util- 
ities in Minnesota and North Dakota. 

Disposal 

Accumulated wastes are limited to util- 
ity ash and the amounts are increasing. 



SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 



Coal shale and coal ash in the United 
States vary widely in accumulated volume, 
production rate, chemical composition, 
and physical characteristics. Neverthe- 
less, it was possible to classify these 
wastes on a basis of geography, residual 
heating values, temperature of process- 
ing, type of prior processing, and alka- 
line earth content. The coal waste cate- 
gories from this classification vary 
in many factors that affect their possi- 
ble utilization as a source of alumina. 
Some categories can be grouped together 
on a basis of compatability as feed to 
alumina extraction processes. 

The data in this report indicate 
that anthracite culm provides the most 



attractive source of alumina from coal 
shale for the following reasons : 



1. Large quantities 
accessible. 



are easily 



2. Its continued storage constitutes 
a severe enviromental pollution and com- 
bustion hazard problem. Utilization 
should provide more substantial, though 
not presently established, commercial in- 
centives than other coal wastes. 

3. Anthracite culm is unsuitable as a 
building material as opposed to coal 
ashes , which have some potential in this 
regard. 



13 



4. Many anthracite culms contain suf- 
ficient coal for the calcination step of 
several attractive alumina extraction 
processes or for physical benef iciation 
as a valuable byproduct. 

5. It generally has higher alumina 
content than other coal ashes and coal 
shale except for the eastern bituminous 
areas . 

6. It has a relatively low content of 
impurities deleterious to the alumina 
extraction processes. 

Bituminous wastes stored in the Appa- 
lachian region are similar in quantity 



and composition to the anthracite culm 
but are less attractive because of their 
scattered location in relatively isolated 
areas. 

Although some coal ashes in the eastern 
United States have alumina contents ap- 
proaching those of anthracite culm or 
eastern bituminous coal shale, many of 
these eastern coal ashes are being par- 
tially or completely utilized for build- 
ing material (_5, 46) . Western coal 
ashes, which are much less utilized for 
building material, are much lower in 
alumina. 



REFERENCES 



1. Abernathy, R. F. , M. J. Petersen, 
and F. H. Gibson. Major Ash Constituents 
in U.S. Coals. BuMines RI 7240, 1969, 
9 pp. 

2. Akers, D. J., B. J. McMillen, and 
J. W. Leonard. Coal Minerals Bibliogra- 
phy. WV Univ., Coal Res. Bureau, July 
1978, 222 pp; available from NTIS, Fe- 
2692-5. 

3. Aldrich, R. G. , and W. J. Zacha- 
rias. Flyash Magnetite - A Commercial 
Realization. Paper in The Challenge of 
Change - Sixth International Ash Utiliza- 
tion Symposium Proceedings, ed. by J. S. 
Halow and J. M. Covey. U.S. Dep. Energy, 
DOE/METC/82-52, v. 2, 1982, pp. 1-21. 

4. Apa, R. P., E. S. Grimmett, F. R. 
Keller, and J. N. McFee. Alumina Extrac- 
tion From Anthracite Culm With Energy Re- 
covery, (contract J0215022, Energy Inc.). 
OFR 83-121, 1982, 86 pp. 

5. Asrew, S. P. Fly Ash Usage in 
Large Commercial Office Buildings. Paper 
in Proceedings , Fourth International Ash 
Utilization Symposium, comp . by J. H. 
Faber, A. W. Babcock, and J. D. Spencer, 
ed. by J. D. Spencer and C. E. Whieldon. 
U.S. Dep. Energy, DOE/MERC/SP-76/4 , 1976, 
pp. 508-517. 



6. Backer, R. R. , and R. A. Busch. 
Fine Coal-Refuse Slurry Dewatering. Bu- 
Mines RI 8581, 1981, 18 pp. 

7. Backer, R. R. , R. A. Busch, and 
L. A. Atkins. Properties of Western Coal 
Waste Materials. BuMines RI 8216, 1977, 
29 pp. 

8. Bartoszek, B. , A. Ciolek, A. Ptas- 
inski, E. Saliva, S. Slusarczyk, B. Zmys- 
linski, and H. Kowalski. Concentrates of 
Iron Oxides From Flue Dusts. Pol. Pat. 
48,027, Mar. 4, 1964. 

9. Biernat, J., P. Podenska, and 
G. Sokolowska. Concentration of Fly Ash 
by an Agglomerating Flotation Method. 
Przegl. Geol., v. 16, No. 12, 1968, pp. 
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